Inequality in income and consumption expenditure is intricately linked to discrimination based on gender, caste, and religion in India. Using large-scale administrative survey data – the Consumer Pyramids Household Surveys (CPHS), we provide empirical evidence on Roemer's paradigm of equality of opportunity in energy consumption and its components: fuel and electricity consumption. We investigate the contributions of circumstance factors – gender, caste, and religion – in generating inequality of opportunity (IOP) in energy consumption and its components at the state level. We find evidence of high IOP in total energy consumption and moderate levels of IOP in fuel and electricity consumption. Our findings show that gender accounts for a substantial share of IOP in energy consumption and its components in southern regions, whereas caste and religion are the key drivers of such inequalities in the north and northeast states. Relative IOP estimates are high in northern states, but lower in the southern and northeast states. We draw several policy implications, highlighting the need for tailored policy initiatives designed and implemented at the state level to enhance energy accessibility and affordability to women-led households, backward castes, and minorities. We contend that the use of such indices cannot only inform the policymakers of the current state of IOP, but one can construct such indices to measure the progress toward ensuring equality of opportunity in energy consumption across demographic groups.

中文翻译：

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印度不同性别、种姓和宗教的能源消耗机会不平等不对称


在印度，收入和消费支出的不平等与基于性别、种姓和宗教的歧视有着错综复杂的联系。使用大规模行政调查数据——消费者金字塔住户调查 （CPHS），我们提供了关于能源消费及其组成部分（燃料和电力消耗）机会均等的 Roemer 范式的经验证据。我们调查了环境因素（性别、种姓和宗教）在州一级产生能源消费及其组成部分的机会不平等 （IOP） 的贡献。我们发现总能耗的 IOP 较高，燃料和电力消耗的 IOP 水平适中。我们的研究结果表明，性别在南部地区的能源消耗及其组成部分中占 IOP 的很大一部分，而种姓和宗教是北部和东北部各州这种不平等的主要驱动因素。北部各州的相对 IOP 估计值较高，但南部和东北部各州的相对 IOP 估计值较低。我们得出了几项政策含义，强调需要在州一级设计和实施有针对性的政策举措，以提高女性主导的家庭、落后种姓和少数族裔的能源可及性和可负担性。我们认为，使用此类指数不仅可以让政策制定者了解 IOP 的现状，还可以构建此类指数来衡量在确保人口群体之间能源消费机会均等方面取得的进展。