The efficient production of uniform, high-quality transport layers beneath the light-absorbing layer is crucial for the performance and scalability of perovskite solar cells (PSCs). This study investigates the incorporation of potassium fluoride (KF) into tin dioxide (SnO₂) nanoparticle solutions to enhance the properties of the electron transport layer (ETL) in PSCs. By introducing KF, we observed a significant reduction in SnO₂ particle size and improved zeta potential, resulting in a more uniform ETL. Experimental analysis demonstrated that optimal KF concentrations in SnO₂ nanoparticles improved coverage and uniformity on substrates, as confirmed by surface SEM and AFM measurement. Such improvement in ETL morphology reduced charge recombination and increased charge carrier mobility of PSCs. Specifically, PSCs with 0.02 M of KF addition showed increased power conversion efficiencies (PCE), up to 24.3%. Furthermore, large-area PSC modules with a 25 cm² aperture area exhibited an average PCE enhancement up to 18.0% due to superior ETL uniformity. Additionally, KF addition also aided the stability enhancement, maintaining 90% of their initial efficiency after 250 hours under 60 ± 5% relative humidity. Our findings underscore the importance of ETL uniformity and provide insights into the role of KF doping in advancing PSC performance, paving the way for more efficient and scalable solar energy solutions.

中文翻译：

---

用于稳健高效的大规模钙钛矿太阳能电池的增材工程基于 SnO2 的电子传输层


在光吸收层下高效生产均匀、高质量的传输层对于钙钛矿太阳能电池 （PSC） 的性能和可扩展性至关重要。本研究研究了氟化钾 （KF） 掺入二氧化锡 （SnO₂） 纳米颗粒溶液中以增强 PSC 中电子传递层 （ETL） 的性能。通过引入 KF，我们观察到 SnO₂ 粒径显着减小，zeta 电位提高，从而获得更均匀的 ETL。实验分析表明，SnO₂ 纳米颗粒中的最佳 KF 浓度提高了基材的覆盖率和均匀性，表面 SEM 和 AFM 测量证实了这一点。ETL 形态的这种改进减少了电荷复合并增加了 PSC 的电荷载流子迁移率。具体而言，添加 0.02 M KF 的 PSC 显示出功率转换效率 （PCE） 增加，高达 24.3%。此外，由于卓越的 ETL 均匀性，孔径面积为 25 cm² 的大面积 PSC 模块的平均 PCE 增强高达 18.0%。此外，KF 添加还有助于提高稳定性，在 60 ± 5% 相对湿度下放置 250 小时后仍能保持 90% 的初始效率。我们的研究结果强调了 ETL 均匀性的重要性，并提供了对 KF 掺杂在提高 PSC 性能中的作用的见解，为更高效和可扩展的太阳能解决方案铺平了道路。