The focus of this review is the shadow economy (SE) in agriculture. Our research aim is to empirically quantify the SE in the agricultural sector based on data collected in the EU-15 member states from 1996 to 2019. We apply the multiple indicators multiple causes model to estimate the levels and development of the SE in these countries. Furthermore, we investigate how the size of the agricultural SE differs between the EU-15 member states and how it affects the economy overall. The results show that (a) the main potential for SE lies in agricultural subsidies, the effects of taxation, the share of imports, and factor income in agriculture; (b) certain patterns and differences exist among the countries, which can be associated with the north-south-west divide; and (c) there are higher levels of SEs in agriculture compared to in the overall economies. This review emphasizes the potential for measuring the SE in agriculture, while recognizing current methodological limitations. Recommendations include diversifying methods, standardizing definitions internationally, and enhancing theoretical foundations. Furthermore, expanding research to include more regions and improve visibility and transparency in measurements is crucial if informed policy is to be made to benefit agriculture globally.

中文翻译：

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1996 年至 2019 年期间 15 个欧盟成员国农业中的影子经济是一个谜


本综述的重点是农业中的影子经济 （SE）。我们的研究目的是根据 1996 年至 2019 年在欧盟 15 个成员国收集的数据，实证量化农业部门的 SE。我们应用多指标多原因模型来估计这些国家 SE 的水平和发展。此外，我们还调查了欧盟 15 个成员国之间农业 SE 的规模有何差异，以及它如何影响整体经济。结果表明：（a） SE 的主要潜力在于农业补贴、税收的影响、进口份额和农业要素收入;（b） 国家之间存在某些模式和差异，这可能与北-西-西分水岭有关;（c） 与整体经济体相比，农业中的社会经济指标水平更高。本综述强调了在农业中测量 SE 的潜力，同时认识到当前方法的局限性。建议包括使方法多样化、在国际上标准化定义和加强理论基础。此外，如果要制定明智的政策以造福全球农业，那么扩大研究范围以涵盖更多地区并提高测量的可见性和透明度至关重要。