Himalayan orogeny and consequent climatic changes, such as the strengthening of the Asian monsoon, are considered as two main drivers in shaping local biogeography. The mountainous Sinopoda spiders, which are widely distributed in East Asia and Southeast Asia and especially abundant in the mountains near the Himalayas, represent an ideal model lineage for investigating Himalayan biogeography. This is due to their high diversity, limited dispersal ability, and wide elevational distribution, ranging from sea level up to 3500 meters. We investigated the evolutionary history of Sinopoda spiders, focusing on ecological, molecular, and morphological traits in relation to local geological events and fluctuations in Neogene (23.0–2.6 Ma) Asian monsoon patterns. Distribution modeling results show that extant Sinopoda spiders are sensitive to humidity fluctuations. They are mainly distributed in two distinct habitats: areas with moderate precipitation at high altitude (relatively cold) and areas with high precipitation at low altitude (relatively warm). The biogeographical and elevation reconstruction analyses show that as the Himalayas rose and the Asian monsoon intensified, Sinopoda spiders (Sparassidae: Heteropodinae) moved out of the Himalayas (ca 18.1 Ma) then ‘down' the rising mountain slopes (ca 9.6 Ma). We then see a secondary return to the mountains (ca 3.3 Ma) as the severity of the East Asian monsoon decreased. We hypothesize that our ‘out of Himalaya' dispersal pattern hypothesis will also apply to closely related spider groups with limited ballooning ability (e.g. Lycosidae, Thomisidae) or other organisms with low vagility (such as herpetofauna) that are sensitive to humidity and possess similar geographical distributions.

中文翻译：

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Sinopoda 蜘蛛（Sparassidae：Heteropodinae）的进化历史：走出喜马拉雅山，下山坡


喜马拉雅造山运动和随之而来的气候变化，如亚洲季风的加强，被认为是塑造当地生物地理学的两个主要驱动力。山地棘蛛广泛分布在东亚和东南亚，尤其在喜马拉雅山附近的山区数量众多，是研究喜马拉雅生物地理学的理想模型谱系。这是由于它们的高度多样性、有限的传播能力和广泛的海拔分布，从海平面到 3500 米不等。我们研究了Sinopoda蜘蛛的进化历史，重点关注与当地地质事件和新近纪（23.0-2.6 马）亚洲季风模式波动相关的生态、分子和形态特征。分布建模结果表明，现存的 Sinopoda 蜘蛛对湿度波动敏感。它们主要分布在两个不同的栖息地：高海拔适中降水区（相对寒冷）和低海拔高降水区（相对温暖）。生物地理学和高程重建分析表明，随着喜马拉雅山的上升和亚洲季风的加强，Sinopoda蜘蛛（Sparassidae：Heteropodinae）离开了喜马拉雅山（约18.1 马），然后“下降”了上升的山坡（约9.6 马）。然后，随着东亚季风的严重程度降低，我们看到第二次返回山区（约 3.3 马）。我们假设我们的“走出喜马拉雅山”扩散模式假说也适用于气球化能力有限的密切相关的蜘蛛群（例如 Lycosidae、Thomisidae）或其他对湿度敏感并具有相似地理分布的低敏捷性生物（例如 herpetofauna）。