The crises of climate change and biodiversity loss have pushed the aim for increasing the resilience of forest ecosystems high on the agenda of foresters and policymakers. At the same time, synergistic opportunities for restoring forests and biodiversity are emerging to safeguard these ecosystems. Naturalness is a key characteristic of forest ecosystems, which should be considered when estimating benchmarks for resilience and biodiversity conservation. The naturalness of forest ecosystems is highly dependent on the intensity of human activity, as different levels of management intensity can change the original traits of forest ecosystems. This paper presents an archetypal typology of forest ecosystems, describing the association between management and naturalness. Both features are represented as gradients covering the full spectrum observed in European forests. The array of forest ecosystem archetypes was verified using case studies across Europe. The typology provides useful information for setting targets for resilience and restoration of forest ecosystems.

气候变化和生物多样性丧失的危机将提高森林生态系统复原力的目标推上了林务工作者和政策制定者议程的重要位置。与此同时，恢复森林和生物多样性的协同机会正在出现，以保护这些生态系统。自然性是森林生态系统的一个关键特征，在估计恢复力和生物多样性保护的基准时应考虑到这一点。森林生态系统的自然性很大程度上依赖于人类活动的强度，不同程度的经营强度会改变森林生态系统的原有特征。本文提出了森林生态系统的原型类型，描述了管理与自然之间的关联。这两个特征都表示为覆盖欧洲森林中观察到的全光谱的梯度。通过欧洲各地的案例研究验证了一系列森林生态系统原型。该类型为制定森林生态系统的恢复力和恢复目标提供了有用的信息。