Collapse sinkholes are problematic for the hazards they bring to property, infrastructure, and human life but the prediction of their formation in time and space remains elusive. We make use of long-term data gathered in a small, highly monitored, hydrologically constrained basin; Primrose Creek, Bucks County, Pennsylvania, USA, to examine the relation between groundwater extraction, precipitation, terrain position, and cover collapse sinkhole development. The selected site is unique as a natural laboratory to explore induced sinkhole processes in that it is a clearly demarcated topographic basin with geological structural and lithologic boundaries; the stressor is extreme, has been plainly identified, and effectively captures all upstream runoff and groundwater; the groundwater withdrawals and water-level elevations have been closely monitored over a period of 20 years; and the general record of land conditions goes back more than a century. We evaluated the history of a carbonate-rock quarry, its development and expansion over many decades, as well as associated precipitation and ground-water level data, and cover collapse sinkhole occurrence within the basin. Interception of discrete high conductivity zones in the Paleozoic carbonate rocks by quarry expansion was an important factor in propagating collapse occurrence. Collapses occurred mainly, though not exclusively, along drainageways and at lithologic boundaries. They formed in time-based clusters with delay of up to several years. Surprisingly, distance of collapse formation from the pumping area was not directly correlated with time elapsed; i.e., collapses did not begin to form close to the quarry, and then later form farther away. Monitoring wells were unsuccessful in delineating the pumping zone of influence although some documented water table decline and response to weather and anthropogenic events. This comprehensive study shows that in order to successfully monitor and control impacts from quarry dewatering in Paleozoic carbonate rocks it is critical to 1) develop a detailed conceptual model of groundwater pathways, 2) try to avoid excavating into high permeability zones, 3) clearly document karst features when exposed, and 4) carefully site a suitable number of monitoring wells and collect data at short intervals.

中文翻译：

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在喀斯特盆地的长期研究中，覆盖层塌陷落坑的形成在时间上存在延迟，并且与距采石场的距离无关


塌陷天坑给财产、基础设施和人类生活带来危害，但对其形成的时间和空间预测仍然难以捉摸。我们利用在一个小型、高度监控、水文受限的流域收集的长期数据；美国宾夕法尼亚州巴克斯县的 Primrose Creek，旨在研究地下水抽取、降水、地形位置和覆盖塌陷天坑发育之间的关系。所选地点作为探索诱导落坑过程的天然实验室是独一无二的，因为它是一个明确划分的地形盆地，具有地质结构和岩性边界；压力源极端，已被明确识别，并有效捕获所有上游径流和地下水； 20 年来一直密切监测地下水抽取量和水位升高情况；土地状况的一般记录可以追溯到一个多世纪前。我们评估了碳酸盐岩采石场的历史、数十年来的发展和扩张，以及相关的降水和地下水位数据，并覆盖盆地内塌陷天坑的发生情况。采石场扩张截断古生代碳酸盐岩中离散的高电导率区域是传播塌陷发生的重要因素。塌陷主要（但不完全）沿着排水道和岩性边界发生。它们以基于时间的集群形式形成，延迟时间长达数年。令人惊讶的是，塌陷形成距抽水区域的距离与经过的时间没有直接关系；也就是说，塌陷并不是在采石场附近开始形成的，而是后来在更远的地方形成的。 尽管一些监测井记录了地下水位下降以及对天气和人为事件的反应，但未能成功描绘出抽水影响区域。这项综合研究表明，为了成功监测和控制古生代碳酸盐岩采石场脱水的影响，至关重要的是：1) 开发地下水路径的详细概念模型，2) 尽量避免挖掘到高渗透性区域，3) 清楚地记录暴露时的岩溶特征，4) 仔细布置适当数量的监测井并以较短的时间间隔收集数据。