Evidence of different compound resin-based adhesives is present in South Africa from at least 77000 years ago. Ancient glue production is considered one of the oldest known highly complex technologies, requiring advanced technological and mental abilities. However, our current knowledge of adhesive materials, recipes, and uses in South Africa is limited by the lack of in-depth analysis and molecular characterization of residues. To deepen our knowledge of past adhesive technology, we performed a detailed multi-analytical analysis (use-wear, XRD, μ-CT, IR spectroscopy, GC-MS) of 30 Later Stone Age tools with adhesive remains from Steenbokfontein Cave, South Africa. At the site, tools made of various rocks were hafted with compound adhesives, and we identified three recipes: 1) resin/tar of or species combined with hematite; 2) resin/tar of or species mixed with hematite and another plant exudate; 3) resin/tar without hematite. The studied scrapers were used in hide-working activities, and the studied cutting tools were used to work animal and soft plant matters. All scrapers display evidence of intense resharpening and were discarded when no longer useable. The combination of different methods for residue analysis reveals the flexibility of adhesive technology at Steenbokfontein. Despite the consistent use of conifer resin/tar throughout the sequence, we observed that other ingredients were added or excluded independently of the tools’ raw materials and functions. Our results highlight the long-lasting tradition of using adhesive material from conifer species but also the adaptability and flexibility of adhesive traditions. The systematic application of this multi-analytical approach to Pleistocene adhesives will be useful to better characterise adhesive traditions and enhance the debate on the technological, cognitive, and behavioural implications of this technology.

中文翻译：

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多分析方法揭示了西开普省 Steenbokfontein Cave 的柔性复合粘合剂技术


至少从 77000 年前起，南非就存在不同复合树脂基粘合剂的证据。古代胶水生产被认为是已知最古老的高度复杂的技术之一，需要先进的技术和智力。然而，由于缺乏对残留物的深入分析和分子表征，我们目前对南非的粘合剂材料、配方和用途的了解有限。为了加深我们对过去粘合剂技术的了解，我们对来自南非 Steenbokfontein Cave 的 30 个晚期石器时代工具进行了详细的多重分析（使用磨损、X射线衍射、μ-CT、红外光谱、GC-MS），这些工具含有粘合剂残留物。在现场，由各种岩石制成的工具用复合粘合剂固定，我们确定了三种配方：1）树脂/焦油或与赤铁矿结合的物质； 2) 赤铁矿和另一种植物渗出物的树脂/焦油或混合物； 3)不含赤铁矿的树脂/焦油。所研究的刮刀用于皮革加工活动，所研究的切削工具用于加工动物和软植物。所有刮刀均显示出强烈重磨的痕迹，并在不再使用时被丢弃。不同残留物分析方法的结合揭示了 Steenbokfontein 粘合剂技术的灵活性。尽管在整个序列中一致使用针叶树树脂/焦油，但我们观察到其他成分的添加或排除与工具的原材料和功能无关。我们的研究结果凸显了使用针叶树种粘合材料的悠久传统，以及粘合传统的适应性和灵活性。 这种多分析方法对更新世粘合剂的系统应用将有助于更好地描述粘合剂传统的特征，并加强对该技术的技术、认知和行为影响的争论。