Context

Uncovering the trade-offs among ecosystem services (ESs) is crucial for enhancing overall ES benefits and human well-being, as well as for improving regional landscape sustainability. However, research on whether relationships among ecosystem service (ES) change across spatial and temporal dimensions has been infrequent, particularly at fine scales.

Objectives

Our study aims to investigate the spatiotemporal heterogeneity in the trade-off strength and their influencing factors in the Huang-Huai-Hai Plain.

Methods

In this study, we analyzed the spatiotemporal evolution patterns of four ESs: food provision (FP), soil conservation (SC), carbon sequestration (CS), and water yield (WY) across the years 2000, 2010, and 2020. We utilized root mean square error, automatic linear models and geographically weighted regression to quantify the trade-off strengths among ESs and uncover the primary influences on the spatiotemporal evolution.

Results

The trade-off strengths including FP_SC and CS_SC, were relatively high, particularly in the southwest region, surpassing 0.5. High-value regions for FP_WY and WY_CS were predominantly concentrated in the north, while WY_SC was mainly located in the south. Spatial heterogeneity was apparent in the factors influencing the trade-off strengths of ESs. NDVI positively influenced the degree of FP_WY in the western region but had a negative impact in the central region. Enhancing landscape configuration to reduce ES trade-offs involves diversifying and adding complexity to the landscape shape in the southwestern areas by adjusting landscape richness and shape. Regarding human activities, economic development would gradually encourage the coordination of FP_SC and FP_WY.

Conclusions

Our study suggested that although the trade-offs among ESs may remain constant, the predominant type and intensity of their relationships vary across both space and time. Precipitation and NDVI emerged as the primary factors influencing the strength of ES relationships in this region. This research contributes to balancing the trade-off strengths among ESs and facilitates the pursuit of regional landscape sustainability.