Mucosal pathogens, as exemplified by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and Mycobacterium tuberculosis, lead to substantial morbidity and mortality worldwide and pose serious threats to global health. Mucosal vaccination is crucial to combating mucosal pathogens because it enables the immune system to directly target and neutralize pathogens at their point of entry. Mucosal vaccines need to penetrate the mucus layer, reach the target tissue and activate robust immune responses in the mucosal tissues. Material-based strategies are necessary to meet these requirements. In this Review, we provide an overview of current mucosal vaccines, categorized by administration route, to highlight the importance of material design in overcoming the existing delivery challenges. We discuss the different classes of materials currently being used as vaccine carriers to induce antigen-specific mucosal immunity, including lipids, natural and synthetic polymers, inorganic materials and pathogen-inspired materials.

粘膜病原体，例如严重急性呼吸综合征冠状病毒 2 (SARS-CoV-2)、人类免疫缺陷病毒 (HIV) 和结核分枝杆菌，在全世界范围内导致大量发病率和死亡率，并对全球健康构成严重威胁。粘膜疫苗接种对于对抗粘膜病原体至关重要，因为它使免疫系统能够在病原体进入点直接瞄准并中和病原体。粘膜疫苗需要穿透粘液层，到达靶组织并激活粘膜组织中强大的免疫反应。为了满足这些要求，基于材料的策略是必要的。在这篇综述中，我们概述了当前的粘膜疫苗，按给药途径分类，以强调材料设计在克服现有递送挑战方面的重要性。我们讨论了目前用作疫苗载体以诱导抗原特异性粘膜免疫的不同类别的材料，包括脂质、天然和合成聚合物、无机材料和病原体启发材料。