Bamboo is a typical biological material widely growing in nature with excellent physical and mechanical properties. It is lightweight with high strength and toughness. The naturally optimized bamboo structure, which has inspired global material scientists and engineers for decades, is significantly important for the bionic design of novel structural materials with ultra-light, ultra-strong, or ultra-tough and comprehensive properties. Typical literature on innovative composite materials and structural members inspired by bamboo are reviewed in this paper, and the research progress and prospects in this field are expounded in three parts. First, the structural characteristics of the bamboo wall layer along the thickness and height directions are described in terms of chemical composition, gradient structure, pore structure, and hollow structure with variable cross-section. Second, this paper summarizes the research progress on new composite materials and structural components by applying bamboo’s structural features from the perspective of sustainability, designability, and customization. Finally, given the limitations of current research, the biomimetic scientific research on bamboo’s structural characteristics is prospected from the interpretation of bamboo structure, new bamboo-like materials, and structural design optimization perspectives, providing a reference for future research on biomimetic aspects of biomass.