The strategy of deterrence by denial is widely used by different actors. Despite its prominence, however, the scholarship on deterrence by denial stands to be developed further. It lags behind scholarship on deterrence by punishment on two points: in identifying the conditions under which the strategy works and in examining elements affecting its adoption. Deterrence by denial also carries some conceptual ambiguity since its employment takes many significantly different forms and also because it overlaps with deterrence by punishment. Despite the emphasis in current scholarship on “inflicting costs” as a defining element of deterrence by punishment, costs arguably also play a significant role in deterrence by denial. To address these challenges, I distinguish between deterrence strategies by focusing on two main elements: the means the deterrer actor threatens to use (offensive or non-offensive) and the timing of the threatened use of these means (before or after the unwanted activity). This offers a more nuanced distinction between deterrence strategies and better encompasses the role of inflicting costs in deterrence by denial. I suggest that this research offers a useful point of departure to further theorize about deterrence by denial, and it sets a promising research agenda that is pertinent given the growing interest in deterrence by denial, especially in its application to cyber deterrence.

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通过施加成本进行威慑：在惩罚威慑与否认威慑之间

不同行为体广泛采用否认威慑策略。然而，尽管其重要性突出，关于否认威慑的学术研究仍有待进一步发展。它在两点上落后于惩罚威慑的学术研究：确定战略发挥作用的条件以及审查影响其实施的因素。否认威慑也存在一些概念上的模糊性，因为它的运用有许多明显不同的形式，而且它与惩罚威慑有重叠。尽管当前学术界强调“造成成本”作为惩罚威慑的决定性因素，但成本可以说在否认威慑中也发挥着重要作用。为了应对这些挑战，我通过关注两个主要要素来区分威慑战略：威慑行为者威胁使用的手段（攻击性或非攻击性）以及威胁使用这些手段的时间（在不良活动之前或之后）。这提供了威慑战略之间更细微的区别，并更好地涵盖了通过否认造成威慑成本的作用。我认为这项研究为进一步理论化否认威慑提供了一个有用的出发点，并且鉴于人们对否认威慑的兴趣日益浓厚，特别是在其在网络威慑中的应用，它设定了一个有前途的研究议程，该议程是相关的。这提供了威慑战略之间更细微的区别，并更好地涵盖了通过否认造成威慑成本的作用。我认为这项研究为进一步理论化否认威慑提供了一个有用的出发点，并且鉴于人们对否认威慑的兴趣日益浓厚，特别是在其在网络威慑中的应用，它设定了一个有前途的研究议程，该议程是相关的。这提供了威慑战略之间更细微的区别，并更好地涵盖了通过否认造成威慑成本的作用。我认为这项研究为进一步理论化否认威慑提供了一个有用的出发点，并且鉴于人们对否认威慑的兴趣日益浓厚，特别是在其在网络威慑中的应用，它设定了一个有前途的研究议程，该议程是相关的。