This chapter analyzes a series of interconnected Italian cases in its enquiry into how disinformation was created, and how it impacted on society. It argues that disinformation is an inherent element of information itself. Disinformation is understood here as an intentional construction of fictional and often conflicting narratives, helpful in times of crisis and also in routine governance in the pursuit of political goals both internally and internationally. Since health matters figured prominently in early modern public discourse and policy making, the article focuses on health-related cases to explain how disinformation worked and may still work today. During the eighteenth century, smallpox raged throughout the world. News of new outbreaks, and attempts to prevent it through inoculation, both sparked huge controversy, in which no participant in the dispute was above manipulating data and fabricating stories to bolster their arguments. After having laid out the context of early modern perceptions of diseases and health institutions, the chapter centres on specific instances: a successful text with Tuscan roots published in Milan by Giovanni Calvi (Tre consulti, 1762), and the port city of Livorno’s management of information about epidemics. The analysis of focal points such as port cities, along with the study of textual sources reveals the entire information chain (construction, circulation and reception). Ultimately the essay points out how disinformation itself is not an exception in the eighteenth-century media ecosystem, but is rather an essential part of interaction within public spaces.

中文翻译：

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矛盾的叙述：十八世纪意大利的健康（Dis）信息

本章分析了一系列相互关联的意大利案例，以探究虚假信息是如何产生的，以及它如何影响社会。它认为虚假信息是信息本身的固有元素。虚假信息在这里被理解为虚构且经常相互矛盾的叙述的故意构建，有助于在危机时期以及在追求内部和国际政治目标的日常治理中。由于健康问题在早期现代公共话语和政策制定中占有重要地位，因此本文重点关注与健康相关的案例，以解释虚假信息是如何发挥作用的，并且可能在今天仍然有效。十八世纪，天花在全世界肆虐。新爆发的消息，以及通过接种预防它的尝试，都引发了巨大的争议，其中，没有任何一方参与到了争论中，他们会操纵数据和编造故事来支持他们的论点。在阐述了早期现代对疾病和卫生机构的看法的背景之后，本章以具体实例为中心：乔瓦尼·卡尔维（Giovanni Calvi）在米兰出版了一部具有托斯卡纳根源的成功文本（Tre Consulti，1762 年），以及港口城市里窝那管理有关流行病的信息。对港口城市等焦点的分析，以及对文本来源的研究，揭示了整个信息链（建设、流通和接收）。最后，这篇文章指出，虚假信息本身在 18 世纪的媒体生态系统中也不例外，而是公共空间内互动的重要组成部分。