This Article explores the intersection of Fourth Amendment standards of proof and the “clearly established” prong of qualified immunity. It illustrates how the juxtaposition of the Court’s insistence on a low level of specificity for the development of suspicion and a high degree of specificity for the imposition of liability makes it exceedingly difficult to hold officers accountable for violating constitutional rights. And it offers both a path for future research into the development of suspicion and suggestions for methods that police agencies can use to improve the development and articulation of suspicion. Ultimately, it contends that policing in the 21st century must take seriously the idea that the Constitution is a floor, not a ceiling, and it calls for the development of more rigorous standards for police actions. 

本文探讨了第四修正案证明标准与“明确确立”的合格豁免权的交叉点。它说明了法院坚持对怀疑发展的低程度的具体性和对责任施加的高度的具体性的并置如何使得追究官员违反宪法权利的责任变得极其困难。它既为未来研究怀疑的发展提供了途径，也为警察机构可以用来改善怀疑的发展和表达的方法提供了建议。最终，它认为 21 世纪的警务必须认真对待宪法是底线而不是天花板的想法，并要求制定更严格的警察行动标准。